Louis Althusser's "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses" is a foundational text for anyone interested in how power works. It's a challenging read, but it offers a powerful set of tools for understanding why we so often consent to systems that may not serve our best interests. Althusser, a French Marxist philosopher, wanted to understand how capitalist societies reproduce themselves. He realized that it wasn't enough to just have a police force and an army; to be truly stable, a society needs its citizens to internalize the values and beliefs of the ruling class. This is where the concept of ideology becomes crucial.
For Althusser, ideology is not just a set of false ideas or propaganda. It is a material practice, embedded in the rituals and institutions of our everyday lives. These institutionsâthe schools we attend, the families we are raised in, the media we consumeâare what he calls "Ideological State Apparatuses" (ISAs). They are the soft power of the state, shaping our desires and our very sense of self. This is a crucial insight for the DEVICES framework. Althusser helps us see that devices are not neutral tools; they are carriers of ideology. They are the instruments through which we are constituted as subjects, hailed into a particular way of being in the world.
By distinguishing between the overt, violent power of the "Repressive State Apparatus" (the police, the military) and the subtle, persuasive power of the ISAs, Althusser gives us a more nuanced understanding of how power operates. He shows us that power is not just something that is imposed on us from the outside; it is something that we actively participate in, often without even realizing it. His work is a call to be more critical of the institutions that shape our lives, and to recognize the ways in which we are all, in his famous phrase, "always-already subjects" of ideology.
Learning Objectives
- Explain the difference between Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs) and Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs).
- Define the concept of "interpellation" and explain how it shapes individual identity.
- Analyze how institutions like schools and the media function as ISAs in contemporary society.
Key Concepts
Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs)
Althusser argues that for the ruling class to maintain power, it can't just rely on direct violence or force. It also needs to persuade people to consent to their own domination. This is where Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs) come in. These are institutions that are formally outside of direct state controlâlike schools, the family, media, churches, and even sports clubsâbut which serve to reproduce the ruling ideology. They teach us how to think, what to value, and how to behave in ways that ultimately support the existing power structure.
Within the DEVICES framework, ISAs are the conceptual and ritual instruments that mediate our experience of reality. They are the software, so to speak, that runs on the hardware of the state. They aren't just imposing ideas from on high; they are shaping our desires, our identities, and our sense of what is possible. When we participate in the rituals of school, or consume media, we are not just passively receiving information. We are actively being formed as subjects who fit into a particular social order.
Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs)
In contrast to the subtle work of ISAs, Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs) function primarily through violence or the threat of it. These are the institutions that we typically associate with the state: the government, the army, the police, the courts, and prisons. The RSA is a unified and centralized apparatus that intervenes when the ideological conditioning of the ISAs fails or is challenged. If you step too far out of line, the RSA is there to force you back into place.
While the RSA's primary tool is force, it also has an ideological dimension. The very existence of a police force, for example, communicates a powerful message about who has the legitimate authority to use violence and what kinds of behavior are considered criminal. The legal system, while functioning repressively, is also a powerful purveyor of ideology about justice, fairness, and individual responsibility. The key distinction for Althusser is what he calls the "primary function" of the apparatus.
Interpellation
How do ISAs actually work on us? Althusser's most famous concept to explain this is "interpellation," or "hailing." He asks us to imagine a police officer shouting "Hey, you there!" on the street. When you turn around, you have recognized yourself as the subject of the call. In that moment of recognition, you are constituted as a subject. Ideology, for Althusser, functions in a similar way. It "hails" us, and in answering its call, we become subjects of that ideology.
This process is not a one-time event, but a constant and ongoing one. We are "always-already" subjects, hailed by countless ideological calls every day. From the moment we are born, we are named, gendered, and placed within a family structure. We are hailed by advertisements that tell us what to desire, by news reports that frame our understanding of the world, and by educational institutions that certify us as certain kinds of subjects. In the context of the DEVICES framework, interpellation is the mechanism by which we become embodied users of ideological devices. The device hails us, and in using it, we become the kind of subject that the device is designed to produce.
Assignment
Read Louis Althusser's essay, "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses." Focus on the sections where he distinguishes between the RSA and the ISAs, and his explanation of "interpellation." As you read, consider these questions:
- What examples of modern ISAs can you identify in your own life?
- How do these ISAs "hail" you? What kind of subject do they ask you to be?
- Do you see evidence of the educational ISA functioning in the way Althusser describes?
Read: Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses Knowledge Check
Reflect on the key topics in this lesson.
1
What is the primary difference between an RSA and an ISA?
Hint: Think about the primary means each apparatus uses to achieve its goals.
2
How does the concept of "interpellation" challenge the idea of the individual as a free and autonomous agent?
Hint: Consider where our sense of self comes from in Althusser's model.
3
Althusser claims the educational ISA is the most important in capitalist societies. What is his reasoning?
Hint: What dual role does the school play in reproducing the conditions of production?
Additional Resources
Supplementary materials for deeper exploration.
Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison
Foucault's work, while not directly engaging with Althusser, offers a complementary analysis of power. He explores how power operates not just through ideology, but through the micro-practices of discipline that shape our bodies and our behaviors in institutions like prisons, schools, and hospitals.
Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity
Butler builds on and critiques Althusser's concept of interpellation to develop their theory of gender performativity. For Butler, gender is not a stable identity but a performance that is constantly being constituted through our repetition of gendered norms. This offers a powerful extension of Althusser's ideas into the realm of gender and sexuality.